by Anne Garber

Mumbai, India (Tuesday, May 23, 2006) -- India's diversity of religions, languages, and cultures is unparalleled. This complex nation's intricate ethnic mosaic is reflected nowhere as dramatically as in its art, architecture, music, and dance. And the culture of India remains as one of the oldest in the world; art is a window for viewing India's rich and varied culture. India has managed to preserve its established traditions throughout history whilst absorbing customs, traditions and ideas from both invaders and immigrants. Many cultural practices, languages, customs and monuments are examples of this co-mingling over centuries. In modern India, there is remarkable cultural diversity throughout the country. The South, North, and North-East have their own distinct cultures and almost every state has carved out its own cultural niche.

In spite of the diversity, it is bound by a common thread as one civilization, perhaps because of its common history. Indian culture and religions had great impact on its immediate neighbours, South East Asia and beyond. Indian influences are still very strong in Thai, Malay, Singaporean, Indonesian, Laotian, Khmer, Burmese, Tibetan, Mongolian cultures and many more. India has been the birth place of many major religious systems such as Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism, that are strong and influential not only in India but across the world.

Although, much of India's oldest secular architecture has not survived because it was built from wood, anecdotal accounts of Greek and Chinese travelers, surviving literature and court histories, ancient sculptural finds and cave paintings -- all indicate that India was not lacking in secular buildings, many of which were embellished with architectural ornamentation and painted in naturally available colours. Of particular note are the public gateways known as Toranas and Step-Wells (Baolis) that were constructed by numerous rulers throughout India -- some of which have still survived.

Even India's temple art which emerged from a richly complex cultural and philosophical tradition is not without considerable secular content. Indian stupas and temples often incorporated sculpted images of musicians, dancers, acrobats and romantic or erotic couples in addition to depictions of a variety of deities. Naturalist or stylized renderings of flora and fauna are to be found not only in much India's ancient art but also in later Indo-Islamic art. Traditional art forms in India include puppet making, block printing, batik, silk screening, blue pottery, painting, sculpting, and marble cutting and many rural folk-art forms.

The best of Indian miniatures, particularly those associated with different musical ragas, are notable for their evocative lyricism, wonderful sense of colour, and expressive subtleties. Prior to colonization, virtually all of India's courts patronized a variety of decorative arts and crafts, and artefacts of superb quality are to be found in museums throughout the world. The Mughals were especially renowned for promoting what has been described as the "cult of the exquisite". However, one of the most appealing aspects of Indian art and architecture has been the widespread penetration of the folk idiom into courtly traditions that has been the outstanding hallmark of Indian art, and gives it its highly characteristic flavour.

Indian Paintings can be broadly classified as the murals and miniatures. Murals are huge works executed on the walls of solid structures. Classic examples are the paintings in Ajantha and Kailasantaha temple.

Miniature paintings are those executed on a very small scale on perishable material such as paper, cloth etc.; Although this style had been perfected by artisans under the various rules, not many remain today. Prime examples are the Rajasthani and Mughal miniatures.

Contemporary artists have kept up to the times and excel in their modern works, giving free expression to their imagination and artistic liberty.

Civilization in India had flourished along the banks of her rivers, off the sea-shores and in semi arid regions. Depending on the locale, materials like wood, mud, bricks, tatches woven of palm and coconut leaves have been used. Huge stones had also been used to create archways, temples etc.; India is the home of one of the Seven Wonders of the world -- Taj Mahal.

Stambhas (pillars) were set up in the Buddhist sacred places and along the highways. Emperor Ashoka made a major contribution, setting up at least thirty such pillars.

A stambha consists of a circular column or shaft slightly tapering towards the summit (monolithic). On top of this shaft is the Persepolitan bell or the inverted lotus shaped base. Above this is the abacus on top of which rests the crowning sculpture. These three portions were carved out of a single stone (monolithic).

The stambhas erected during various periods have shown a development in style and structure. Some fine examples are the Basarh Bakhira (with lion capital), Laurya Nandangarh in Champaran district of Nepal (with a seated lion capital on an inverted lotus and carved abacus).

The Saranath stambha with its four lions seated back to back as its crowning sculpture is a fine specimen. Following the Buddhists, the Hindus and the Jains also had columns. (Garuda pillar at Besnagar).

The famous iron pillar from the Gupta period is a fine specimen, withstanding exposure to rain and storm, yet remaining smooth and un-rusted bearing testimony to the mastery of Indian metal-casting.

Stupas are basically funeral mounds -- low circular mounds ringed by boulders. It was mostly a Buddhist art, though Jains also seemed to have built stupas. Emperor Ashoka had built a great number of stupas. A stupa was to enshrine body relics in the form of small pieces of calcinated bone of the Buddhist monks and teachers.

A stupa consists of a solid hemispherical dome on which stands a kind of kiosk. A railing surrounds this (vedika) and even when the construction was of stone, it continued to resemble wooden railings of the past in design.

The Sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the best specimen of stupa art. The finest of Buddhist stupas in South India is that in Amaravathi, Andhra Pradesh. Stupas were also erected in Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayapetta and Ghantasala in South India.

Smaller miniature stupas were also placed around the main, as is the case in Bodh Gaya, Gandhara and Nepal, where the pilgrims placed the stone replicas, sometimes with a Buddha statue within. The Gandhara stupas show great development in decorative sculptural elegance with a higher base.

Chaityas are the halls enclosing the stupas. Ashoka constructed eight rock-cut halls in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills and the one near Rajgir dedicated to Jaina monks. The Lomas Rishi, the Sudama (both in the Barabar hills) and the Sita Marhi (Nagarjuni hills) caves are fine examples of the Chaityas that resembled the wooden buildings of the period.

More sophisticated rock-cut chaityas developed later. The final form of rock-cut architecture that developed from these early forms can be seen all over India in Andhra Pradesh, Kathiawar in Gujarat and in Ajanta and Ellora. The rock formation in all these areas were most suited for these rock cut structures. Alternating layers of hard and soft rock prevents moisture from seeping inside.

They began the work from the top and continued downward. The Buddhists were the main contributors to these rock-cut monuments and best monuments are those found in Ajanta and Ellora (vishwakarma cave -- cave No.10). Fine sculptures adorn the walls. Figures of Buddha in various poses were cut out.

Viharas are the dwelling places donated to the normally wandering Buddhist monks. The earlier structures were made of wood and soon developed from the primitive thatched huts into large sangharamas. Pali texts indicate the structure of the viharas. In course of time the sangharamas developed into educational institutions and centres of Buddhist learning, such as those at Nalanda, Vikramasila, Somapura. Hinayana viharas are seen in Ajanta, Ellora and in the Orissan hills in the east coast and at Nasik, Bedsa, Kondane and Pitalkhora in the Western Ghats. The development of Mahayana vihara can be traced only at Ajanta.

Hindu and Jain rock-cut architecture can be seen mainly at Badami, Aihole, Ellora, Elephanta, Aurangabad and Mamallapuram.

The Rashtrakutas produced the Brahmanical Kailasa temple at Ellora. Badami has four cave temples executed at various levels of the sand stone hill. Cave no. 1 is dedicated to Siva, no. 2 and no. 3 to Vishnu and cave no. 4 is a Jaina structure.

Aihole has two rock-cut temples, one Jaina and the other Brahmanical.

At Ellora there are 17 Brahmanical caves and six Jaina caves.

The Pallavas of Kanchi initiated rock-cut architecture in the South. They used the available hard granite to cave out their structures. Because of the hardness of the granite rock, there was a limitation on the size of the caves as well as the details on the sculptures.

Arjuna's Penance, Mamallapuram Mahendra Varman ( Vichitrachithan) was responsible for the Laksitayatna Trimurti cave temple at Mandagapattu dedicated to Brahma, Vishnu and Iswaran. At least nine more temples were carved out during his time.

Other Pallava kings also followed his style, with a few differences. Narasimha Pallava built the coastal town of Mamallapuram (Chennai). The Mamalla style cave temples were more elaborate. Monolithic rathas and vimanas belong to Narasimha's period.